Strength Training For Children

I'm often asked if strength training is suitable for children as part of their overall physical development. To answer this quetion I've dug out one of my old articles originally published in Peak Performance which explains why resistance training can be a safe and effective training method for children.

Resistance Training: Resistance Training: The message has got through to adults: should they keep it to themselves or pass it down to the juniors?

Mention the words 'resistance training' and 'children' in the same sentence and most people will start giving you funny looks. To say the subject is controversial is an understatement(5, 16). This is hardly surprising when you consider that until recently the benefits of resistance training to athletic performance have largely been dismissed in the UK. Only now are coaches, athletes and the general public beginning to realise that 'pumping iron' can not only transform your physical appearance but can also improve your health and sporting performance (1,7, 9,14).

As the UK wakes up to the fact that adult athletes can seriously enhance their performance if they adopt a structured resistance training programme a new question arises: is it too little too late? At what age can we start to introduce our young Beckhams and Henmans to resistance training? For the purposes of this article I am talking about children from the age of 11 and up and it is precisely this age group which many of the world's most successful sporting nations are introducing to resistance training during school training programmes.

So what do we mean by the term 'resistance training'? For some the phrase will conjure up images of muscle-bound ironmen pumping iron (and much else besides), posing in front of the mirror. In fact resistance training is simply a programme of exercise, which uses one or more types of training system(1). Methods include exercises using bodyweight, such as sit-ups, press-ups and dips. Resistive tubing, free weights and machines may also feature in resistance work. Even many of the traditional Olympic lifts, if taught with correct technique and light implements, can substantially improve a child's balance, proprioception, strength and power. What we should not do, however, is confuse resistance training with maximal-type exercises performed during competitive Olympic and power lifting competitions. The key is not to perform maximal lifts with young performers(13).

First, though, why the bad press for resistance training?
The popular myth that resistance training was not only potentially harmful to young performers but was also of little use for improving strength and power was first fostered in the research community. One of the earliest papers came from Eastern Europe back in the early 1960s. A study investigating the trainability of lower back muscles following a course of isometric resistance training failed to demonstrate any significant improvements in strength. Further studies looking at leg and arm strength also failed to find any substantial strength gains(18). During the next couple of decades a groundswell of support backed the notion that resistance training methods failed to provide significant increases in strength in young performers. As is often the case, subsequent research built upon the limitations of earlier investigations.

So why did earlier studies fail to provide evidence of strength gains? The 1960s investigators used only modest training loads, resulting in a lack of progressive overloading (possibly one of the most important training principles, irrespective of the training method being used). When combined with relatively short monitoring periods, it is hardly surprising that little or no improvement was seen. Modern training theory now confirms that, in order to achieve significant strength gains in young athletes, training mode, intensity, volume and duration must all be manipulated to provide the optimal combination. Researchers and coaches alike are now confident that if a suitable resistance training programme is employed, significant strength and power gains in young performers are possible (5, 10,11).

In recent years research has started to provide compelling evidence of the benefits of resistance training. Training programmes incorporating progressive overloading of the muscles have provided evidence that strength gains in young athletes is possible (even if they have not gone through puberty). In 1986 a group of boys aged between nine and 10 embarked on a period of resistance training. At the end of the training period significant increases in elbow and knee flexion and extension were recorded(11). Further studies found that over a period of 20 weeks, progressive overloading of the elbow flexor and knee extensor muscle groups, using isotonic training techniques, produced significant increases in strength(12). 1RM double leg press (22%), maximal voluntary isokinetic elbow flexion (26%) and knee extension (21%) were achieved.

Yet again, it has a lot to do with neurological systems
So recent evidence has shown that resistance training could be a useful tool in the coaches' 'toolbox' of training ideas. But you may find yourself asking: how can a boy who has yet to go through puberty (and has therefore yet to have testosterone coursing though his body) possibly experience gains in strength. Surely, gains in strength are related to muscle hypertrophy, which is influenced, by the amount of testosterone in the body? Early research showed that the young athletes were not experiencing significant gains in muscle size (as would be expected with adults) and, when coupled with the lack of strength improvement, it seemed sensible to conclude that resistance training was of little benefit. However, more recent studies have shown that strength can be improved even in the absence of muscle hypertrophy. The question is: how?
What the early studies failed to recognise was that children are not just miniature adults and that the mechanisms which bring about an increase in strength in adults may differ for children. So how can children improve strength if testosterone is not responsible? Testosterone does not start to increase until mid to late puberty, effectively ruling out the male hormone's contribution to strength gains in young performers(16).

And, given that girls (who, of course, don't produce testosterone) can also improve their strength, that very fact points us in the direction of a different explanation.

Theorists have pointed to the possible contribution of neurological systems(10). Evidence suggests that strength increases in line with the development of the nervous system, which is of primary importance in the exertion and development of muscular strength(16). Research has indicated that there are three likely determinants of strength gains: improved motor skill coordination; increased motor unit activation; and undetermined neurological adaptations(16,13). Early theories were based largely on indirect supposition and so direct assessment of these neurological adaptations was needed. Using ground-breaking techniques, researchers investigated the changes in motor unit activation (MUA) following a period of resistance training in pre-adolescent boys(12). Results indicated that after the first 10 weeks of training, MUA of the elbow flexors increase by 9% and MUA of the knee extensors increased by 12%. Slower increases in MUA were recorded during the second 10 weeks. The results confirmed current thinking that the nervous system has many roles to play in improving athletic performance, as demonstrated in many recent PP articles.
Subsequent research confirmed that strength gains in young performers could be attributed in part to increased neuromuscular activation. Both MUA and motor coordination increase still further when multi-joint complex lifting activities are used rather than isolated movements. Specificity is important for improved motor coordination: researchers have demonstrated that more significant improvements in strength occur in the specific exercises performed during training than with non-specific exercises such as isometric elbow flexion and knee extension(1).

Can you really swim faster, jump higher and hit harder?
While you may be prepared to accept the body of laboratory evidence which shows that resistance training can improve strength in young performers and that the dominant underlying mechanism is neural in origin, it is legitimate to ask whether this can be translated to the sporting arena. It has been said that the stronger an individual is, the higher he will jump, the faster he will run or swim and the harder he will hit a ball. Sports such as netball, rugby, athletics, tennis and cricket all require strength and power in order to perform complex multi-joint movements. It's not unreasonable, based on the research, to suggest that the results seen in controlled laboratory studies could be transferred to the sporting arena. Although there is limited direct research in this area, studies have shown that intensive resistance training can improve both strength and swim speed in pre-adolescent boys and girls(2). Indirect evidence has shown that an increase in strength can improve specific activities, such as vertical jump, swim speed and running speed(15) and, if you look at the investment most high-performance teams are now making in strength training for their performers, I would suggest that resistance training is an extremely effective tool for improving athletic performance.

If you are still not convinced about the impact resistance training can have on performance, just look at leading sports performers from a decade ago and compare them with those competing now: today's competitors are bigger, stronger and faster than ever before. While the cynical may refer to illegal aids, the more astute will recognise that sports performers are increasingly using resistance training to help improve their performance. Although there is limited research on youngsters, it is reasonable to suggest that younger athletes could also enjoy the same type of improvements in athletic performance seen in adults following a period of resistance training.

But what about injuries? Surely, all that training can't be good for young bodies? In 1987 the US Consumer Product Safety Commission reported that resistance training was a harmful activity for children(1). The report highlighted the disturbingly large number of injuries associated with resistance type exercises; 8,543 injuries were incurred by 0-14 year olds and ranged in severity from sprains and strains to fractures. Approximately 40% of the injuries occurred during unsupervised sessions in the home. A subsequent study investigating sport-related injuries in school children taking part in 22 sports found that resistance training produced just seven injuries from a total 637, placing it 17th on the injurious list(17). The message is clear and obvious: if young athletes play around with weights at home or during unsupervised sessions they could well end up in their local A&E department. However, if you closely supervise your young athletes during resistance training sessions, ensuring they follow a structured training programme, they should be at no greater risk of injury than when they are taking part in their chosen sport.

But what about the immature musculoskeletal system?
Another area of concern is the potential damage resistance training can cause to the immature skeleton: increased physical activity in children is often associated with musculoskeletal damage(4). The skeletal system is in its formative stages during pre-adolescence and does not fully mature until early adulthood (6,8). It is commonly thought that the use of resistance training could contribute to damage of cartilage, bones, joint surfaces and tendons. It has even been suggested that damage to growth cartilage can result in stunted growth. Other structures, such as the spine, have also been highlighted as an area of potential injury. Although these issues are a serious cause for concern, some experts feel that the case may be somewhat overstated. Research has shown that sport-related musculoskeletal damage occurs very rarely. The majority of cases have been linked with maximal overhead lifts of the sort associated with power lifting, and no evidence has been found of skeletal damage in relation to resistance training (1).
So, based on sound research, it would be safe to say that a good-quality resistance training programme is an effective training method to complement the existing training regime of young performers. If you are a coach looking to introduce your young athletes to the benefits of resistance training, here are some guidelines to take into consideration.

The young performer:

should complete a medical examination by doctor before starting the training programme;
should be mature enough to accept instruction;
should want to participate in the programme;
must possess the basic motor skills of their primary sport;
must maintain correct form during lifting;
must avoid competition during training.

For his or her part, the coach should:
ensure the young performer is closely supervised during training sessions;
ensure the training offers variety;
pay particular attention to the strengthening of the back and abdominal muscles;
ensure that in the event of any pain, training is discontinued;
ensure that the resistance training programme forms part of a comprehensive programme designed to increase motor skills and fitness levels;
ensure that all exercises are carried out though a full range of motion;
Prohibit any attempts at maximal lifts.

If resistance training is a new area to you, here are some of the basic guidelines you should think of when putting together a training programme:
1. Begin and end each session with 5-10 minutes of warm-up and stretching.
2. Balance the workout by altering pairs of muscle groups, ie perform a 'pull' exercise after each 'push' exercise. (Examples of pull exercises are barbell or dumbbell bent over row, cable lat pulldown, seated row; push exercises may include barbell, dumbbell or machine bench press, squats and shoulder press.)
3. Exercise the larger muscle groups (pectoralis major - chest; latissimus dorsi - back; quadriceps) first, and the smaller muscle groups (biceps and triceps - arms; deltoids - shoulder; gastrocnemius/soleus - calves) at the end.
4. Perform 1-3 sets of 6-15 repetitions. Younger children may use fewer sets and more repetitions.
5. Allow 48 hours of recovery after each strength training session.
6. Work on the schedule 2-3 times per week while maintaining other sporting activities.
7. Younger children can spend 20-30 minutes per session while older children can increase the duration of each session.
Nick Grantham

References

1. Sports Medicine 15, 389-407, 1993

2. Australian Journal of Sport Science 1, 3-6 1981

3. Effects of Physical Activity On Children, Broekhoff J, Human Kinetics, 78-87, 1986

4. Child Health, Nutrition and Physical Activity, Cheung & Richmond. Human Kinetics, 1995

5. Designing Resistance Training Programmes, Fleck SJ & Kraemer WJ, Human Kinetics, 1987

6. Strength Training For Sport, Hazeldine R, The Crowood Press, 1990

7. Sports Medicine in Primary Care, August S.5-S.8, 1995

8. Exercise Physiology Energy, Nutrition and Human Performance (3rd Ed), McArdle WD, Katch, FI, Katch VL, Lea & Febiger, 1991

9. Sports Med 16, 57-63, 1993

10. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 26, 510-514, 1993

11. Physician and Sportsmedicine, 14, 134-139; 142-143, 1986
12. Strength Training Effects In Prepubescent Boys, 22, 605-614

13. National Strength and Conditioning Association Journal 13, 39-46, 1991

14. Physician and Sportsmedicine, 21, 105-116. 1993

15. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 6, 629-638, 1986

16. Wilmore JH & Costill DL, Physiology of Sport and Exercise, Human Kinetics, 1994

17. American Journal of Sports Medicine 8, 318-323, 1980

18. Medicine and Sport, 11, 152-158, 1978

3 Mistakes

Here are what I think are the 3 biggest mistakes an S&C coach can make.

1. Slow steady state cardio training for athletes competing in speed/power based events. This one drives me insane and I have to say it usually gets spouted to me by old school coaches that are stuck in the 80's or sport sceintists that bang on about research having never coached in their lives. WAKEY WAKEY…….YOU ARE SO FAR BEHIND THE CURVE ITS NOT EVEN FUNNY. How do I know its wrong – because I used to do it and it didn’t work. I still see this all the time and the best answer they can give is that’s how we have always trained….wrong answer!! If I hear another coach tell me they are developing an aerobic base I will scream!!! There are so many reasons I won’t go into them now…trust me if you are still doing this (and you know who you are) then stop. I can feel an e-book coming on 101 reasons why steady state cardio sucks!

2. Taking the principle of specificity and flogging it until its dead. Seriously I’ve watched a coach working with a swimmer using a metranome so that the swimmer can lift at the same tempo as his stroke rate and……guess what….each set lasts as long as one race. Why don’t you just go and swim!! Strength work is about transfer of training effect…..not specificity…..if the strength drill is too close to the actual sports technique research shows you will actually reduce the sporting performance. Our job as coaches is to make the most out of the athlete that we are working with - we need to give the coach the strongest, fastest most powerful athlete possible. If we deliver that then the coach can go to town on the technical and tactical work.

3. Thinking that there are ‘bad’ exercises. Don't be fooled into thinking that full squats are bad or bench pressing is the devils exercise. There’s no such thing as a bad exercise, just crappy programming. I’ve worked with some pretty extreme sports and the nature of the sport means the body has to do some things that strictly speaking it’s not designed to do. it’s not that a particular exercise is bad, it’s more to do that the coach or athlete has not thought about proper progressions or whether the exercise is suitable for that individual. We must not do straight leg sit ups….its bad for your back…..what if your sport is gymnastics and requires that type of movement?

Deep Water Training Option For Runners

I'm a huge fan of the pool as a training tool and used it extensively whilst working at the English Institute of Sport.

Runners often find their chosen sport less attractive in the winter months - for obvious reasons. So if you're already shivering at the prospect or are injured and can't run on roads for a while, it may interest you to know that deep water running is a viable alternative.
In a joint study, researchers from England and Tasmania compared the effectiveness of deep water running and road running in improving maximum oxygen uptake in a group of 20 untrained young women.
After establishing baseline VO2max values, each participant was enrolled on a four-week training programme of either road running or deep water running, with progressive aerobic interval sessions carried out three times per week. After four weeks, VO2max was retested and the women then embarked on 10 weeks of detraining before swapping training programmes for a further four weeks.
Both training programmes produced similar and substantial improvements in VO2max, and the researchers concluded that deep water running, in common with other aerobic activities, offers significant cardiovascular benefits when performed at the appropriate frequency (3-5 days per week), intensity (60-75% of maximum heart rate) and duration (20-60 minutes). Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, vol 14, no 2, pp191-195

The Art and Science of Making Weight - A Real World Guide to Weight Cutting

"In the 2008 Summer Olympics two boxers were sent home - one from Britain, one from the USA. One of them was the defending WORLD champion in his weight class.They weren't sent home because of a positive drug test. They were sent home because they couldn't make weight. Olympic dreams shattered because of an inability to beat their biggest opponent -- the scale. And it could all have been avoided..... Gina Carano (MMA fighter and american Gladiator) has failed to make weight for her last three fights. Thiago Alves failed to make weight before his last fight and had to contest the match at a higher weight class. Making weight is as much of an art form as it is a science. But it's been a closely guarded secret amongst those in the know. Includes sections by Brian Schwab, Justin Harris and Matt Kroczaleski. Nick Grantham and Alwyn Cosgrove spent almost ten years cutting weight and competing in combat sports.They have since moved on to the world of coaching others and have refined their methods - backed up with evidence from other coaches and athletes and some of what the latest research has to offer.

To get your copy of this e-book visit Elite Fitness Systems

Mike Boyle Interview

Mike Boyle is an internationally recognised strength and conditioning coach and he recently took the time to answer some of my questions about all things strength and conditioning.

NG: Thank you for the interview. Why don't you start by telling us a little bit about your current coaching commitments?
MB : For the summer I have about 20 National Hockey League and minor league players training four times a weeks as well as my Boston University Hockey players. In addition we have about 300 collegiate and high school athletes working out in our two facilities.

NG: Can you tell the reader your educational or previous career background and how you ended up developing Mike Boyle Strength and Conditioning? MB: I’m actually a Certified Athletic Trainer so I started out on the sportsmed side of things. I have a bachelors and a masters from Springfield College. I’ve worked in the college environment for 25 years and also worked in the NHL for 10. NG: What in your opinion are the essential skills needed to be a successful athlete in a team sports? Are there similarities between the various sports (American Football, Soccer etc).....what training makes the difference?
MB: For team sports it all about strength, speed, and conditioning. We waste way too much time with sports specific bullshit. Get your athletes strong, get them fast and get them in shape.

NG: Many Pro sports don't seem to have much of an off season and raining and competing week in, week out is extremely demanding. What particular issues do athletes face trying to maintain fitness - how do you make sure that your athletes maintain their fitness levels during the season - what are your 3 top tips?
MB: 1-Get lots of frequent, brief and intense workouts. In-season training looks a lot like HIT training.2- Fitness is relative, Guys that play a lot of minutes need more rest, not more work. Guys that don’t play a lot need to get extra work in on game day.3- Make post-workout nutrition a priority. Shakes post game are key.

NG: What's the one thing that really gets under your skin when it comes to the strength and conditioning.
MB: Lying. It is amazing the bullshit that gets thrown around. This is a particular problem in the US with American football. Coaches lie about test results and that places undue pressure on other coaches to match these unrealistic results. I think a lot of these guys should have to film testing so everyone could see it.

NG: S&C coaches in the UK and Europe are always looking to America as the leading nation in S&C. I have to say I think the Europeans have a lot to offer the Americans. What do you think of the state of S&C in the UK and Europe.
MB: I think there are lots of great coaches abroad but, they don’t coach “American” sports. Americans don’t really understand sports like soccer. I think there is a broad range in training philosophy with European soccer from very progressive to Stone Age aerobic based programs. The US has a huge edge in facilites and equipment. American strength and conditioning was born out of an American football mentality and it is tough to break.

NG: You know from my articles that I'm not a fan of long slow steady state cardio training....it's a tradition that dogs many team sports in the UK......is it a problem in American sports, do the coaches still get athletes to complete endless hours of long runs during training - what's your opinion and solution?
MB: I’m with you. I hate long slow distance training. It’s getting to be less and less a problem in team sports in the US. There are still some dinosaurs left in ice hockey and soccer over here but, I think we winning that battle as it applies to team sports. The place we are losing it is in fitness.My solution? Get Oprah to interval train. Oprah can change the world.

NG: How do you monitor training intensity - how far do you push your clients?
MB: Depends on age etc. With my personal training clients I work on feel. I ask them about their day, their week etc. With my pro athletes we start very easy and build every week. I work on a work capacity model where we just keep adding more and more each week. It’s only a 10-12 week off-season and we have a lot to do.I learn the most from my college players that I work with year round. I really need to manage them to keep them fresh. It’s much harder.NG: How do you approach training players from different age groups?

MB: The older they get, the safer it gets. Young kids are resilient. They can front squat, clean etc with no problems. As my guys age we do less Olympic stuff and more single leg stuff that doesn’t load the spine as much.

NG: I know you study the field a lot. Who do you go to for training advice?
MB: Truth is, it gets tougher each year to find new info. In the past 5 years most of my new ideas have come from the physical therapy world. Mike Clark, Gray Cook, Mark Comerford, Shirley Sahrmann. However, I think we have gone too far with the therapy side. I think these folks are brilliant but, they don’t do what we do. They can provide ideas but, they don’t actually work with athletes for a living.I’m really lucky to be on the Perform Better circuit. I get to hang with some of the best in the business and talk training. Mark Verstegan, Alwyn Cosgrove, Todd Wright, Al Vermeil. The list is endless.

NG: Who else in the field has influenced or helped you? What are the best tips you learned from them and can pass on to your readers?
MB: I’ve been heavily influenced by Vern Gambetta. He was way ahead of his time. Mark Verstegan and his staff ( Craig Freidman, Darryl Eto, Anthony Slater, Sue Falsone) have always been great sounding boards for me. I really like Todd Wright, he the S+C coach for mens basketball at University of Texas. Alwyn Cosgrove and Jason Ferrugia really get me thinking. I’m also a big Ryan Lee fan. He’s showed me how to really make a career out of this stuff.

NG: What tips could you add of your own?
MB: KISS. Keep It Simple Stupid. Great technique and great effort. Coach, that’s the job.

NG: There seems to be a real boom in 'old school training', tyre flipping, car pushing...strongman type stuff etc in America. I guess if you are competing to be a strongman it makes sense!!.....what's your thoughts on it's application to development of sport performance?
MB: I think it’s a dangerous waste of time. I like heavy sled work as I can see its application. Beyond that, I don’t have much use for it.

NG: What supplements do you think work?
MB: Protein supplements work. Fish oil is essential. I think a Greens product is a good investment. I also think that the Glucosamine/ Chondroitin supplements work if you have joint pain. After that it’s a crap shoot.

NG: What are your goals as a coach?
MB: I want to be remembered as an honest, ethical, hardworking guy who gave people good value. Beyond that, I’m not too concerned.

NG: What advice do you give athletes when it comes to recovery - how do they manage to keep training without breaking down?
MB: We roll, stretch, and do lots of mobility work. I think you need to care for your tissue. I also harp on my athletes about nutrition. As I said earlier, postworkout nutrition is a big deal.NG: What are your thoughts on the use of whole body vibration in strength and conditioning? MB: I’m becoming more and more of a fan. I think there is something to it although I’m not exactly sure what it is. It clearly is not a passive exercise fad. The big issue is in practicality and affordability. You need at least three units to make it work with groups and that’s about K US.

NG: What's the latest Mike Boyle project? MB: I’ve just bought back my training business in the last six months. Did a huge renovation in conjunction with my friends at Perform Better. Most of my energy is focused on getting that business back up and running. NG: Where can people read more about your theories and programs? MB: I write a column at www.coreperformance.com, I write for t-nation about once every two months, I’ve done lots of stuff for ptonthenet, and I have one of the best websites in the industry www.michaelboyle.biz

NG: Before we finish, I'm asking all of our contributors for their top five books - the ones every S&C coach should have in their library? We've had some great answers and I'm building a virtual library on the links page of the web-site....what are your top 5? MB: Just go to www.michaelboyle.biz I have a recommended reading list with all my favorites both from the training side and the personal development side.

How to Avoid DOMS (Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness)

Having trouble getting out of bed? Having to walk backwards down the stairs because your legs feel as though they are on fire? You are probably suffering from DOMS. Don't worry. It's not as bad as it feels and if you follow the recommendations of DJ Szyman-ski at Auburn University you may be able to avoid the associated pain altogether ('Recommendations for the avoidance of Delayed Onset Muscular Soreness,' Strength and Conditioning Journal, Vol 23 (4) 7-13).

Every athlete, regardless of his or her fitness level, has experienced sore and stiff muscles after moderate to strenuous exercise at the start of a new training programme. These symptoms usually occur after eccentric (downhill running, plyometrics, etc.) or unaccustomed exercise. During these activities your muscles become more susceptible to structural damage, resulting in muscle soreness, loss of strength, decreased range of motion and neuromuscular function. All of these symptoms together are generally referred to as DOMS (delayed onset muscle soreness).

Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) is not a new phenomenon; research investigating the cause of delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) dates back to the early 1900s and several theories have been put forward to explain the underlying cause. Probably one of the most popular explanations is the accumulation of lactic acid in the muscles. Popular yes, correct, no. Blood and muscle lactate levels typically return to normal values after 30-60 minutes of recovery. Eccentric exercise produces the most severe muscle soreness but requires relatively low energy expenditure (even less than needed for concentric exercise). Therefore if lactic acid were to cause delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), then muscle soreness would be expected to be greater after exercise with a higher metabolic cost (concentric activity). In addition, we know from bitter experience that the pain associated with delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) peaks after 24-72 hours. When we consider that lactate concentrations return to pre-exercise levels within 60 minutes it seem ludicrous to suggest that the two are somehow related.

Subsequent research has suggested that damage to the muscle ultra structure and connective tissue may be responsible for delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). It is suggested that a sequence of events starting with exercise causes muscle damage and then muscle protein breakdown, resulting in cell inflammation and increased local muscle temperature. As a result pain receptors are activated, causing the sensation of delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). Further research suggests that muscle damage alone may not be the best explanation for the cause of delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). Inflammation and swelling should also be considered as they also activate and sensitise pain sensors around the muscle fibres.

So what does Szymanski recommend?With a better understanding of the underlying causes of delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) it is possible to implement preventative strategies. Szymanski offers the following guidelines to follow when attempting to reduce delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS).
1.Don't bother to reach for the medicine cabinet prior to a match or workout. No research supports the use if anti-inflammatory drugs, antioxidant supplements, ointments or creams in the prevention of delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS).
2. Conflicting evidence surrounds the use if post-exercise massage, post-exercise stretching and cold application.
3. Warm up: research indicates that concentric activity may better prepare the body for the stress caused by eccentric, damage- inducing exercise. Increased muscle temperature results in a reduction in muscle or connective tissue viscosity, a higher resistance of muscle tissue to tearing and increased muscle elasticity.
4. In addition to a warm up,repeated bouts of eccentric exercise performed within one to six weeks after the initial bout of exercise have been shown to reduce delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) and muscle damage allowing for faster recovery of strength and ROM.What action to takeTherefore to avoid delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), try the following:(a) Perform a general warm up(5 mins, cycling, jogging etc).(b) Perform specific dynamic mobility exercises for 15-20 minutes.(c) When starting an exercise programme, avoid movements that entail strenuous eccentric muscle action (downhill running, plyometrics, etc).(d) Gradually increase the intensity and duration of exercise.(e) Complete additional bouts of the exercise that originally caused delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) - for instance, if DOMS was sustained during downhill running, additional downhill running within one to six weeks will help alleviate the problem).

Vibration Training

Move over, wobble board -- the vibration platform is here. In the past 10 years there has been an increasing interest in the somewhat strange concept of vibration training and its potentially positive impact on athletic performance. Can simply standing on a vibrating platform improve a players strength, power and flexibility? Is this a gimmick providing a short-term fix, or can players and coaches expect to see some valuable long-term training adaptations? Is vibration a useful rehab tool?

What is Vibration training?
Early work by the Russian space agency looked at the use of vibration training in combating the effects of zero gravity conditions on the musculoskeletal system. It didn’t take long for scientists working within sport to start using vibration training with a variety of athletes (rowers, track and field, gymnasts and ballet dancers). Although this pioneering research indicated that vibration training had the potential to enhance both strength and flexibility, it was another 10 years or more before the international sports science community dusted off the old research papers and began to take a closer interest in this training intervention.

Among the advocates for vibration training within the sporting world are: American Football (Tampa Bay Buchaneers); Ice Hockey (Anaheim Mighty Ducks); Baseball (Chicago Whitesox); Football (AC Milan); Cycling (Lance Armstrong); Running (Alberto Salazar -Marathon runner and head coach of the Oregon Project); Skiing (Herman Maier) and Rugby (Lead Physiotherapist for the Scottish Rugby Union team, Stephen Mutch)

The concept
When a player stands on a vibrating platform, the repetitive movement presents a strong stimulus to musculoskeletal structures due to the muscle stiffness changing in response to the vibration, which researchers believe produces physiological adaptations to accommodate the vibratory waves.

We do not clearly understand the exact mechanisms for enhanced athletic performance and injury prevention. Potential adaptations include:
increased excitation of peripheral and central structures (pre-activation of musculoskeletal system, resulting in improved readiness for the training stimulus).
increased synchronisation of motor units;
stimulation of GTO (golgi tendon organs), inhibiting activation of antagonist muscles;
increased hormonal secretion;
variation of neurotransmitter concentrations (dopamine, serotonin); and
excitation of sensory receptors such as muscle spindles, leading to improvements in the stretch reflex cycle.

Training effects: Performance Enhancement and Rehabilitation
Enhanced physical preparation is arguably the birthplace of vibration training and is where most of the research has been conducted. It was in the late 1990s that claims started to circulate that 10 minutes of vibration training could produce the same training effect as completing 150 leg presses or half squats with loads of three times body mass twice a week for five weeks; and that 10 days of vibration training was the equivalent to completing 200 drop jumps from a height of 60cm, twice a week for 12 months! Recent research has also shown improvements in strength as well as improvements in flexibility and muscle activation. Professionals working in sports rehabilitation have been quick to set about establishing a role for vibration training within injury treatment and rehab. Initial work has already investigated the effect on bone health and ACL (anterior cruciate ligament) rehabilitation strategies. At the start of 2005 it was reported that the Edinburgh and Scotland flanker Allister Hogg had used vibration training during his rehab from a knee injury sustained during a cup match.

Take Home Messages
1. Vibration training may be an effective intervention for reducing the ageing process in musculoskeletal structures.
2. Vibration training may be an effective rehab tool for people that have not exercised for some time (e.g. injured players).
3. More research is needed to understand the neurophysiological mechanisms involved in muscle activation.
4. Optimal amplitude and frequency need to be identified.
5. Vibration training seems safe when standing on the vibrating platforms for a relatively short time with the knee semi-flexed to limit transmission of vibrations to the head.
6. Prolonged exposure to vibration training can have a negative impact on health and proper care should be taken when exercise programmes are prescribed.

Should we all rush out and buy a vibration platform? Despite the mounting body of evidence in support of this modality, the jury is still out. Vibration training could yet be the next big thing to revolutionise performance enhancement, injury prevention and rehabilitation. But so far, the men in white coats cannot give us a green light, and anyone using this technique will be doing so with their fingers firmly crossed behind their backs.